As Tennenhouse argues, the Duke's omniscience and craft come to fruition in Act V, insomuch as the Duke reforms Angelo's corrupt proto-bureaucracy, whereby "the sheer arbitrariness of the law becomes a unified misinterpretation of the law, one that punishes virtue and equates self-interest with justice. Not every possible interpretation of the Duke is equally valid, but Measure supports multiple valid interpretations of the Duke's political resonance. ... Like doth quit like, and MEASURE still FOR MEASURE. Angelo ( AN -jeh-loh), a Viennese nobleman, the duke’s deputy, a man who is cold, arrogant, and unbending in the knowledge of his own virtuous life. Casting "Measure For Measure," a live read of pf a play by William Shakespeare in person. In particular, does the Duke's textual interpretation suggest a political affinity with James? As such, Tennenhouse's larger claim also loses much of its potency. Mariana (Measure for Measure) Hurt/Comfort. This essay is about the Duke Vincentio in Measure for Measure. Bawcutt, N. W, " 'He Who the Sword of Heaven Will Bear': The Duke Versus Angelo in Measure for Measure," Shakespeare Survey: An Annual Survey of Shakespeare Studies and Production 37 (1984), pp. "5 A large number of these plays, he points out, were performed between 1604 and 1606.6 Tennenhouse, then, not only denotes the temporal relation between Measure and James's 1603 coronation, he also recognizes the possible political significance of theatrical disguised ruler characters. He presents the Duke as a reformer, one who exemplifies mercy and punishment in his treatment of Angelo. However, if we grant the Duke's complicated motives, as revealed in Act I, we may read the lines literally. Get custom paper. He will graduate in the spring with a major in English Literature and a minor in Religion. The Duke, however, glosses over Angelo's grievous crimes—"your evil quits you well"—simply calling on him to marry Mariana. Instead, the Duke orders Angelo to marry his former fiancée Mariana, the woman he was engaged to marry until she lost her dowry at sea. Indeed, a sincere monarch, in Tennenhouse's terms, is not a self-serving and preferential monarch. Measure for Measure - Duke Vincentio Act 1, sc. Posted on August 4, 2014. First, provost, let me bail these gentle three. (I.iii.41-43). (Consider, for example, his role in the bed-trick, which dupes Angelo into sleeping with Mariana instead of Isabella.) '"1 Most agree that Angelo, Vienna's corrupt surrogate ruler, is not able to strike an accord between the necessity of Christian mercy and the demands of state punishment. It is possible, then, that Shakespeare wrote Measure observing a considerable shift in England's political paradigm. Swarthmore College Then, Angelo, thy fault's thus manifested; Which, though thou wouldst deny, denies thee vantage. Taking on the disguise of a friar, Vincentio operates behind the scenes to bring his subjects the best possible future. Furthermore, textual interpretation of the Duke is entangled with historical accounts of Measure's first performance. Vincentio, Duke of Vienna, encapsulates both kinds of selves, notably the private alternative. The Duke's Christian "remission" may be a ruse, the consummation of "favors" the Duke harbors toward his friend and second-in-command (V.i.14). Swarthmore, PA 19081-1397. In contrast, the Duke, when he throws off his disguise in Act V, amends the flaws of Angelo's rule that have led to near disaster. He does not much enjoy pomp and circumstance, and has spent a great deal of time off in his study, during which time many laws in his city have gone disregarded. Romance. I will attempt to answer these questions by critically engaging Leonard Tennenhouse's new historicist reading of Measure.4  Tennenhouse, in short, reads Measure in relation to political debates surrounding James's coronation. In 1603, Queen Elizabeth died, leading to the July coronation of the Scottish King James Stuart. 271-89. In Measure for Measure, Duke Vincentio of Vienna leaves Angelo in charge of enforcing his new civil obedience laws. He professes to have received no sinister measure from his judge, but most willingly humbles himself to the determination of justice: yet had he framed to himself, by the instruction of his frailty, many deceiving promises of life; which I by my good leisure have discredited to him, and now is he resolved to die. Insofar as he is favorably received by the public in Act V, the Duke's motives for leaving the city are suspect; leaving and then reclaiming power from Angelo clearly works in the Duke's political favor. The duke in measure for measure appears to be an enigmatic figure – his retirement from his kingdom, his installation of Angelo as his deputy, his moving about his own kingdom in disguise seem to puzzling … Had always looked forward to a life of contemplation with other women. Not wishing to be seen as a tyrant by suddenly changing his mind on the subject, he goes on a trip, leaving his powers in the hands of a man he knows will reestablish the rigors of the laws. Tennenhouse, Leonard, "Shakespeare and the Scene of Reading" in Power on Display: The Politics of Shakespeare's Genres, New York: Methuen, 1986, pp. DRAMATIS PERSONAE / VINCENTIO, the Duke / ANGELO, Deputy / ESCALUS, an ancient Lord / CLAUDIO, a young gentleman / LUCIO, a foppish young For although the Duke may appear to establish civilizing distinctions that have been lost during Angelo's rule, the Duke can also be seen as a continuation of the "sheer arbitrariness of the law," just as guilty as those on which he passes judgment. Certainly, the prospect of Duke Vincentio's selfishness, both in his decision to go into disguise and the judgment he pronounces on Angelo, deconstructs Tennenhouse's interpretation of the Duke as a reformer. The play opens with Vincentio, the benevolent duke of Vienna, commissioning his deputy Angelo to govern the city while he travels to Poland. Duke Vincentio in Measure for Measure Sample. Once he has let everyone know that he has been there all along and could have stepped in at any moment to stop things from going too far, that he could have demoted Angelo earlier and easily have saved Claudio’s life, but preferred to remain disguised, watch how things went and make them more interesting, he asks Isabella to marry him. Trotter Hall 120 / I find an apt remission in myself;" (V.i.507-509). This is clear in the instructions the Duke gives Angelo before granting him his office: "Mortality and mercy in Vienna / Live in thy tongue and heart." The Duke could indeed enact a "sham trial. Tennenhouse believes that this "apt remission" toward Angelo is one of the Duke's master strokes. Use up and down arrow keys to explore within a submenu. Writing Associates Program Measure for Measure: names Let’s take a quick look at some of the names we find in Measure for Measure … My edition (as always I’m using the Pelican Shakespeare from Penguin Press) lists the Duke of Vienna’s name as Vincentio. Accepting that the Duke's character allows for a plurality of interpretations, we may construct a more nuanced and complex relationship between Renaissance literature and English society. Speeches (Lines) for Vincentioin "Measure for Measure"Total: 194. If the Duke is as self-absorbed as he seems to be in leaving Vienna, the argument can easily be made that the Duke's show of mercy is disguised cronyism. There are neither prefaces nor epistles accompanying the texts from the playwright.9 However, Shakespeare's reticence to write, as far as we know, thoughts about his authorship is not an obstacle for Tennenhouse's project, for he attempts instead "to show that, during the Renaissance, political imperatives were also aesthetic imperatives. 3 VINCENTIO: No, holy father; throw away that thought; Believe not that the dribbling dart of love Can pierce a complete bosom. Measure for Measure is one of William Shakespeare's more enigmatic works. He lives in Columbus, GA. They declared that the monarch's power, in fact, was grounded in Parliament itself. Hence, the Duke is able to prevent Angelo's perverted sense of mercy and punishment from causing harm. Scholar Marjorie Garber points out that, for many literary critics, Shakespeare's portrayal of Duke Vincentio seems to … Shakespeare, William, Complete Works of Shakespeare, The 6th Edition, ed. To LUCIO. Use enter to activate. He prepares Claudio to die even though fully intending to save his life. Hide or show the sub-menu options for Meet Swarthmore, Hide or show the sub-menu options for Academics, Hide or show the sub-menu options for Campus Life, Hide or show the sub-menu options for Admissions & Aid, Hide or show the sub-menu options for News & Events, Lang Center for Civic & Social Responsibility. Tennenhouse's interpretation depends upon the interdependence of two entities: first, historical evidence that the literate classes did think on the "origins and limits" of James's power in a way that was actually relevant to how James acted as King; and second, textual support in Measure which demonstrates that the Duke is a reformer and, by extension, an argument for absolutism. Isabella does not approve of her brother's actions at all, but she pleads for his life out of loyalty and sisterly devotion. 51-78. (I.iii.7-10). He has known for a long time about Mariana’s betrayal by Angelo, and decides to take this opportunity to fix the situation for her. Indeed, as Isabella and Mariana beseech the Duke for mercy, he seems to come to a Christian conclusion: "Well, Angelo, your evil quits you well. Please consider making a small donation to help keep this site free. Yet after engaging Tennenhouse's new historicism, it seems that Shakespeare's relation to Whitehall leaves much to be desired. Debate over the Duke's character often centers around the question: "How are fallible humans to judge the sins of their fellow mortals and still obey Christ's injunction... 'Judge not that ye be not judged? He is manipulative, though always with reasonably good motives. Given that other Shakespearean heroes, such as Valentine, Berowne, and Benedick, deride love only to be overmastered by it, such a statement sets up the expectation that Vincentio will also succumb to Cupid's … Yet, James and the Commons were not the only contenders for state power; judicial authorities argued that actions taken by both institutional entities were subject to common law.14 Taking into consideration all three perspectives, Tennenhouse concludes that "[a]t this time in history...the literate classes comprised a state without a clear hierarchical structure," yet one "where power could not be imagined in any other form but a hierarchy. The Duke fools Angelo into thinking that he believes the plea to be insincere; the Duke cries out that "Haste still pays haste, and leisure answers leisure; / Like doth quit like, and measure still for measure" (V.i.418-419). Over time, "the machinary [sic] of the state takes control of the deputies and substitutes" in charge, ultimately corrupting them.17  Tennenhouse calls attention to Angelo's assent to carnal desire, as well as his hypocritical condemnation of others doing the same: Angelo sentences Claudio to death for sexual licentiousness, but uses his power in attempting to coerce Isabella to lie with him. But this Act V "resolution" can also be read as a culmination of self-serving motives, specifically when put into the context of the Duke's personal revelations in Act I and his role in the play's resolution in Act V.  These complications in the Duke's interactions with Angelo make it difficult for me to support Tennenhouse's claim that Measure expresses a cultural desire for absolutism. David Bevington, New York: Longman, 2008. These interpretations have far-reaching consequences. Just from $13,9/Page. As we have seen, Tennenhouse's argument is supported by several passages from the text. We could, of course, give the Duke the benefit of the doubt and interpret the lines simply as a yearning for a much needed vacation (a "life removed") away from the responsibilities of dealing with the demands of "haunt assemblies" of popular youth (I.iii.8-9).30 Yet his desire for absence is more deserving of our disapproval. Casting off his disguise, the Duke returns to Vienna and exposes Angelo's hypocrisy. However, men in Parliament believed that James had broken a fundamental rite of kingship. "15, While he concedes that this debate took place years after the emergence of the disguised monarch plays, Tennenhouse argues that Measure, as well as its contemporaries, presents a debate over political hierarchy similar to that taking place in the public sphere.16 As a whole, he abstracts in the play a progression from a decentralized, proto-state bureaucracy to a centralized hierarchal paradigm. Reviewers Hopkins and Orr lay out the scene after Vincentio receives no response from a shocked Isabella to his first proposal: “Rylance (Vincentio) repeated this … Justin aspires to become a professor in the humanities, with the hope that—through discourse with others—he will figure out a way to calm the rage for order and find contentment in this world. Bennett, Josephine Waters, Measure for Measure as Royal Entertainment, New York: Columbia University Press, 1966. 89-97. First, as even Angelo himself attests, he is inexperienced: "Let there be some more test made of my mettle / Before so noble and so great a figure / Be stamped upon it" (I.i.49-51).35 Vienna's problems are extensive, warranting an experienced leader, not a novice. Duke Vincentio Timeline and Summary. In doing so, he sidesteps previous attempts to uncover Shakespeare's conscious political motives. Certainly, one can unearth duplicities in the Duke's motives throughout the text. Duke Vincentio is the ruler of Vienna. Summary. A decade before Dromgoole, Mark Rylance attempted a very different ending for Measure at the Globe under the direction of John Dove. Measure for Measure Act I, sc. 1-16. He commends Angelo, asking him to: Give me your hand,And let the subject see, to make them knowThat outward courtesies would fain proclaimFavors that keep within... (V.i.14-17). As he writes in the introduction to his book Power and Display, "I have not even attempted to show—as well one might in describing the political Shakespeare—how the writer immersed in this milieu sought to question political authority. Though degraded throughout the play, the Duke's wisdom and craft comes to the fore in Act V.22 True to the punishment his profligate crime deserves, but still embodying the mercy of Christian forgiveness, the Duke ultimately repeals his death sentence on Angelo [I cite: "An Angelo for Claudio, death for death!" and the private Duke. Overview Synopsis Characters Scenes Full Play Reviews Documents. But as a whole, Measure expresses a political hermeneutic, an energy embodying the literate classes' desire for a "true monarch." 25-34. Measure for Measure English Association Shakespeare Bookmarks ... know that Duke Vincentio is an Elizabethan Prince: that is, he is an ideal figure of authority in ... out of justice. Vincentio, Duke of Vienna. Actually understand Measure for Measure Act 2, Scene 3. White, Hayden, "The Problem of Change in Literary History," New Literary History 7.1 (1975), pp. Enigmatic, dissimulating, seemingly at cross-purposes with himself, Vincentio in Measure for Measure is probably the most complex figure in Shakespearean comedy. As the Duke points out, Vienna has not seen such a depraved state of affairs in "fourteen years" (I.iii.21). In expressing his "purpose / More grave and wrinkled" to the Friar (I.iii.5), the Duke appears to seek sanctuary from the expectations of public office: My holy sir, none better knows than youHow I have ever loved the life removedAnd held in idle price to haunt assembliesWhere youth, and cost, witless bravery keeps. In Measure for Measure. Justin diFeliciantonio is a senior honors student. In his first days in command, Angelo declares that he will begin to enforce laws against licentious behavior. "19  Unlike Angelo, who is subsumed by the power of his office, the Duke is able to negotiate the paradoxes of human law, namely through an omniscience obtained by his disguised, God-like status:                                     O my dread lord,I should be guiltier than my guiltiness,To think I can be undiscernible,When I perceive your Grace, like power divine,Hath looked upon my passes. Overcome with desire for Isabella, Angelo claims that he will free Claudio if she will make love to him. "8 Indeed, Shakespeare's absolute silence on his own authorship makes it very difficult to appraise his "true" political intentions, if any, in the composition of Measure. In his first days in command, Angelo declares that he will begin to enforce laws against licentious behavior. 1.3: The Duke shows up at a monastery and asks to be disguised as a friar so he can spy on Angelo and his subjects. One has only to look to Act I, when readers are first introduced to the Duke.26 Here, the Duke explains Vienna's need for reform and his leave of absence, both of which clarify his decision to hand power over to Angelo. "Mesur for Mesur," written by "Shaxberd" and performed by "his Maiesties plaiers," was played for James I at his Whitehall holiday retreat on December 26, 1604.2 Most scholars agree that Shakespeare composed the play the same year it was played, or in the latter part of 1603. Thinking the Duke absent, Angelo wrongfully imprisons a young nobleman who has impregnated his fiancé, Juliet. Claudio (Measure for Measure) Duke Vincentio (Measure for Measure) The Virgin Mary; Yuletide Treat; Yuletide 2015; Female-Centric; POV Female Character; Bechdel Test Pass; Summary. The Duke has the power to "bring Angelo to justice, rescue Claudio, protect Isabella, enforce the pre-nuptial contract between Angelo and Mariana, and punish Lucio. Duke Vincentio. Taking on the disguise of a friar, Vincentio operates behind the scenes to bring his subjects the best possible future. Competing interpretations of the Duke's character throw into doubt Tennenhouse's new historicist reading, that the English literate classes could not imagine power "in any other form but a hierarchy. Quotations from Measure for Measure refer to J.W. Enter DUKE VINCENTIO, ESCALUS, Lords and Attendants DUKE VINCENTIO Escalus. Though Tennenhouse's argument is eloquent, I believe his reading overly simplifies the Duke's character. Shakespeare, in authoring intricate political valences into the Duke's character, may effectively capture the reality (read: ambivalence) of Jacobean politics. "23 In the question of political resonance between the play, its performance at Whitehall, and James's coronation, Measure does not reveal the conscious intentions of Shakespeare, but instead represents the transition between the "supplanted" and the "restored father," put otherwise, the Jacobean cultural energy that validates James's rule.24 That is not to say, however, that England's literate classes were not anxious over public debates between the King, Parliament, and common law. Author's Note: Shakespeare's Measure for Measure begins with Duke Vincentio, the ruler of Vienna, handing his power over Vienna's government to his deputy, Angelo. Vincentio, the Duke Duke Vincentio is the ruler of Vienna. The Duke's ostensibly magnanimous intentions come under fire when we learn that, all along, he has known about Angelo's (reprobate) interactions with Mariana.36 Thus, one could argue, contra Tennenhouse, that in addition to choosing an inexperienced figure, the Duke elects a leader possessing questionable moral character, one unable to properly execute "mortality and mercy. 1-33. From top level menus, use escape to exit the menu. If we read Tennenhouse's larger interpretation of Measure into the Duke's lines, we may infer that the Duke makes a hidden advertisement. The bureaucratic element of this progression becomes manifest when the Duke goes into disguise, leaving Angelo, Escalus, and a complex of assistants in control of Vienna. 3.1: The Duke goes to the prison to offer his support to the inmates … Unlike Angelo, the Duke does not "punish" virtue, nor does he "equate" self-interest with overall justice.40 Regardless, the suspect nature of the Duke's motives in Act I looms heavy over Tennenhouse's Act V interpretation. Our haste from hence is of so quick condition That it prefers itself and leaves unquestion’d Matters of needful value. Disguised as a Friar, the Duke manipulates events so that Angelo faces … Vincentio, the Duke. Disguised as a friar, the Duke engages in degrading encounters, which set back his attempts to restore mercy and justice.21 At one point, he is tricked by Angelo, who makes the Duke (Friar) believe that a letter sent to Angelo has induced pardon for Claudio's life, only for the Duke to listen as a royal messenger reaffirms to the prison Provost Claudio's death (IV.ii.102-07). "37 The Duke, contrary to Tennenhouse's reading of him, may not just be preoccupied with his own shyness, but actively seeking his own ends. "7 In order to shed new interpretative light on Measure, he seeks to uncover a mechanism beyond an allegorical reading that still maintains the possibility that Shakespeare expresses his political deference through the Duke's characterization. In the same way Duke Vincentio goes into disguise to watch Angelo submit to carnal desire and tyranny, these plays feature a trickster figure—often a monarch—who surreptitiously "observes the state and witnesses both sexual misconduct and the abuses of political power. Indeed, the Duke chooses to leave Vienna when it needs him most. Isabella, despite believing that Claudio is dead, joins Mariana in imploring the Duke to show mercy to Angelo. Then, Angelo, thy fault's thus manifested; Which, though thou wouldst deny, … During his first years on the throne, James laid claim to "ancient rights," which allowed him the ability to exercise absolute authority over Parliament. Why I desire thee To give me secret harbour, hath a purpose More grave and wrinkled than the aims and ends Of burning youth. 1.1: The Duke announces that he's leaving town and puts Angelo in charge while he's away. Over the years, a lot of comparisons have been made between the Duke and King James I, who sat on the throne when Shakespeare wrote Measure for Measure. Yet, corollary to his desire to retreat from public, we may also read his excuse for inaction as an attempt to "disguise" his bad rule.31, Nevertheless, it stands to reason that the Duke does not want to abandon the city to its vice. He also takes the opportunity of his disguise to try and find out what people think of him, and is shocked at Lucio’s slanders, as he thinks rather well of himself. Use left and right arrow keys to navigate between menus. Measure for Measure Characters & Descriptions . The main character, Isabella, is a very virtuous and chaste young woman who faces a difficult decision when her brother is sentenced to death for fornication (unlawful sex). The Duke, like Angelo, is just as susceptible to power's corrupting effects, his "monarchal reform" just as prone to self-serving motivations.44. Moreover, while Angelo pronounces an unreasonable sentence for Claudio, purveyors of vice in Vienna generally escape punishment. Goldberg, Jonathan, "James I and the Theater of Conscience," ELH 46.3 (1979), 379-98. He does not much enjoy pomp and circumstance, and has spent a great deal of time off in his study, during which time many laws in his city have … Yet it is the very object of historical criticism itself to understand such mechanisms. Later in Act V, when the Duke sloughs off his friar identity, Angelo confesses to his crimes. In actuality, the duke remains in Vienna disguised as a friar in order to watch what unfolds. Scholars, however, dispute whether the Duke in Act V truly rectifies Angelo's rule. All Rights Reserved. This is not to contend that the Duke waltzes through Measure as a trickster unscathed. When we call into doubt his rigid textual interpretation, his explanation of the resonance between the play and James begins to fall apart; for all of the moral reform he allegedly enacts in Act V, we are hard pressed not to question the Duke's reasons for disguise. And if the Duke drops the charges against Angelo,43 surely the Duke does not meet the state's demand for punishment, fails to bring into harmony "Mortality and mercy in Vienna" (I.i.45). He then reunites Claudio with his love Juliet, demands that Lucio propose marriage to a whore, and finally asks Isabella for her own hand in marriage.Critics refer to Measure as a "problem play." The Duke, he says, is an expression of Jacobean cultural energies which affirm a political desire for monarchal absolutism. Duke Vincentio, surreptitiously observing Angelo's rule while disguised as a friar, convinces Isabella to trick Angelo into believing that she will acquiesce to his demands. He leaves Vienna in Angelo's charge and returns disguised as Friar Lodowick to watch developments while incognito. Thus the Duke's solution to "substitute" himself for Angelo, "Who may in th'ambush of my name strike home, / And yet my nature never in the fight / To do in slander." (V.i.417).] Duke Vincentio- Measure for Measure. Measure for Measure: ACT I Volume I Book VIII 6 Proceeded to you; therefore take your honours. Thus, just like Angelo, the Duke could easily prove just as inept at resolving the paradoxes of the law. Following the letter of the law, Angelo passes the…. 97-111. He is very concerned that his own reputation be upheld, and is a firm defender of monarchs’ rights to be considered the best of men. We'll leave that to you to decide. Casting is done prior to event. Use up and down arrow keys to explore within a submenu. To many critics, he is conveyed as a Machiavellian Prince, using others for his own political ends, and to some critics, a God-like figure, testing the … As a student in Professor Nora Johnson's Shakespeare seminar, Justin was struck by Measure for Measure's varied history of interpretation—in particular, debate over Duke Vincentio's alleged altruism—and decided to investigate further. He is described as the old fantastical Duke of dark corners. Tennenhouse approaches Measure by historically situating it among other "disguised ruler plays" concurrently performed in Jacobean England. The Duke commands that Angelo consummate his marriage with Mariana. "45 That is not to say, however, that his textual interpretation of the Duke is without merit. 3 (Line 1 - Verse - Intercut) Page 2 of 3 This file was created by Tee Quillin and distributed through a partnership with Shakespeare’s Monologues (https://www.shakespeare-monologues.org). In his effort to explicate this energy, and subsequently discern Measure's political valences, Tennenhouse presents a model that expounds literature's function in society. The Duke affirms this judgment in Act V, when he remarks that his disguised perspective has made him "a looker-on here in Vienna, / Where I have seen corruption boil and bubble / Till it o'errun the stew" (V.i.325-327).27 It seems reasonable, at first glance, that if the Duke should present anyone with the power to clean up the city's vice, it should be Angelo. © 2021 Swarthmore College. Gelb, Hal, "Duke Vincentio and the Illusion of Comedy or All's Not Well That Ends Well," Shakespeare Quarterly 22.1 (1971), pp. I contend that, contra Tennenhouse, the Duke's character is far from exclusively that of a reformer. Link/Page Citation Scholars have proposed that Shakespeare was political in the sense that his plays reflect and comment on the crucial governmental issues and figures of his day, that his … Angelo has already shown his willingness ("O my dread lord") to be reprimanded by the Duke (V.i.374). the character of the Duke can be divided into three different characters ; the public duke. The "history of a culture is a history of all of its products. Lever's Arden edition (London: Methuen, 1965). Thus, Tennenhouse concludes, Measure's "dramatic conflict finds its resoltuion [sic] in an argument for absolutism. Angelo's lines reflect a realization that his "unmeasured" bureaucracy has been watched all along by a highly capable being—the Duke—who has waited for the right moment to intervene and play the role of the reformer. He is described as the old fantastical Duke of dark corners. Wheeler, Richard P., "When our deep plots do pall: The Problem Comedies and Shakespeare" in Shakespeare's Development and the Problem Comedies, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981, pp. In his undisguised encounter with Angelo at the beginning of Act V, the Duke foreshadows the dramatic action that follows. For some, the Duke is a character of positive reform, using his omniscience, craft, and disguise to properly execute the law. "11  To connect new literary conventions to the literate classes' "fantas[ies]" on the "origins and limits of power," however, is not to say that literature simply mirrors socio-political debate.

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